Grains, Greens, and Grated Coconuts by Ammini Ramachandran

An Excerpt from Grains, Greens, and Grated Coconuts: Recipes and Remembrances of a Vegetarian Legacy

By Ammini Ramachandran

Chapter One Our History and Heritage

Along the coastline of tropical southwestern India, where the Indian Ocean and the Arabian Sea converge, set among picturesque lagoons and backwaters and separated from the rest of the Indian subcontinent by the rugged Sahyadri mountain range (also called the Western Ghats), lies a land of spectacular beauty and proud heritage: Kerala, the land of coconut palms and spices.

The story of our spices is an ever-changing history of lands discovered or destroyed, favors sought or offered, treaties signed or broken, wars won or lost, and kingdoms built or brought down. Ever since ancient times, the monsoon-soaked rain forests of Kerala, home to several spices: including the world's most widely used spice, black pepper (piper nigrum) were a prime destination for many explorers. The abundant black pepper attracted Arabs, Greeks, Romans, Portuguese, Dutch, and British from the west and Southeast Asians and Chinese from the east.

The spice trade not only brought prosperity to our region, but it also left an indelible imprint on Kerala's culture and cuisine. From the pre-Christian era onward, trade between the kingdoms of south India and ancient Israel and Arabia resulted in the formation of the earliest Jewish, Christian, and Muslim communities of Kerala. When foreign traders arrived at the port of Muziris, near the capital of the Chera kings (ancient rulers of Kerala), the reigning kings treated them with respect, extending facilities for their settlement and the establishment of their faiths in the land. Foreign traders brought with them numerous new plants and trees, which thrived in our tropical weather. Several fruits, nuts, spices, and vegetables we associate today with Kerala cuisine were unknown in ancient times. All these were slowly but surely integrated into our cuisine.

Arab Trade

Despite the fame of overland trade along the Silk Road, much of the significant trade between Europe and Asia was carried out in specific sailing seasons along the Indian Ocean. The Arabian Peninsula was home to Arabs, Hebrews, Ethiopians, and Syrians. These pre-Islamic tribes of central Asia, along with Indian and Southeast Asian merchants, were active traders and intermediaries in early Indian Ocean trade. The port of Muziris became one of the main trans-shipment ports for goods from the east. Spice traders took native spices and other commodities that had arrived at the port across the great expanse of the Indian Ocean to Africa and Arabia, and from there, to points farther west.

The tradition of maritime trade expanded to unprecedented levels with the introduction of spices to the West. The Arab and Jewish merchants tolerated Indian traders in Africa, but they fiercely guarded the lucrative commerce within the Red Sea for themselves. Arabs also shrewdly withheld their sailing knowledge of the Indian Ocean from Greeks and Romans, in order to maintain their monopoly of Indian goods.

When the Romans occupied Egypt and made the Red Sea their main path of commerce, profits from caravan routes declined, and the kingdoms of southern Arabia lost much of their wealth. However, the old Arab channels of trade with India survived, thanks to age-old alliances and agreements between Arab and Hindu traders. Interestingly, cinnamon, the spice that made fortunes for the Arab traders in earlier times, remained an Arab monopoly. The Romans could find it only at Arab ports; the source of cinnamon in India was scrupulously guarded from them. Such was the loyalty between the ancient traders of the Indian Ocean.

Discovery of the Maritime Trade Route

The seamen of Ptolemaic Egypt were reluctant to risk a long voyage close to the Arab-controlled shoreline. During the second century bc, a Greek sailor is said to have taken advantage of the powerful monsoon winds to navigate his ship toward India's southwestern coast. This route to the coast of Kerala, primarily to the port of Muziris, was mostly from the Red Sea through the Arabian Sea, where trade winds helped push the ships toward the southern shores of India. Once they mastered the use of the monsoons, the Greeks no longer needed the Arabs as expensive middlemen for African and Indian goods.

Roman Trade

When conducting trade through inland routes, Rome had to pay tolls to the Empire of Parthia and other Arab kingdoms. After they gained control of Egypt, the Romans began to exploit the Red Sea outposts. Ocean trade brought highly valued goods to Rome, and they began to rely heavily on sea trade for exotic spices and luxurious products from the east. When Emperor Augustus made Egypt a part of the Roman Empire, it ushered in a new era of trade. In Augustus's days, over a hundred dhow-type ships left in July, at the height of the southwestern monsoon season, to travel to the heart of the pepper country; carrying their precious cargo, they returned with the northwest monsoons in November. Many Indian goods arrived in great quantities at Red Sea ports before being transported to Alexandria.

By 40 ad, Alexandria became not only the greatest commercial center in the world but also the preeminent emporium for spices. The consumption of pepper grew astonishingly, and pepper became a status symbol of fine cookery. Pepper reigned as the paramount spice for several centuries.

Once the pepper shipments reached Roman Egypt, the governments collected customs duty on the imports in some instances, from 25 to 50 percent of their value. Arab traders had to pay this duty in Alexandria. Some of the Roman merchants are believed to have remained at Muziris and served as middlemen between the local merchants and their own countrymen who arrived with cargoes to trade. Romans often paid dearly for the goods from India with gold and silver. Muziris's trade with Rome remained active and extensive for several centuries.

Roman trade, although dangerous because of storms and pirates, was highly profitable. Often, one ship carried the cargoes of several merchants, which included nard; malabathrum; pepper; gems such as turquoise, lapis lazuli, onyx, diamonds, sapphires, and pearls; ivory; sandalwood; tortoise shells; cotton; and silk. Ethiopian emeralds, Egyptian coral, gold, silver, and wine were some of the products Romans sold or bartered in Muziris.

The Revival of Arab Trade

Arab conquests and the political integration of Roman Egypt, Syria, Iran, and North Africa resulted in an expanded territory. After the fall of the Roman Empire, the resources of the Indian Ocean and its coastal lands came under the control of Arabs, and once again, they gained preeminence in the spice trade.

The meteoric rise of Islam closed off any further European exploration of the spice routes and opened new opportunities for traders from the Muslim world. Their newly found power allowed them to venture deep into the markets of the East. By the ninth century, the substantial volume of trade had greatly enriched the Islamic caliphate, while Europe sank into a dark age. Although Indian Ocean trade was mainly under the control of Arabs from the fall of the Roman Empire until the latter half of the fifteenth century, Jews, Syrian Christians, and Chinese also participated. Christian and Jewish trade guilds were very powerful in Kerala. Commerce between India and the Middle East relied mostly on intermediaries; business was done on a consignment basis with friends and relatives in faraway ports, while the principal remained in India.

The Chinese were collecting cloves and nutmeg from the East Indies and delivering them to the port of Malacca. Merchants from India and Arabia transported these goods to India. In India, cinnamon from Ceylon and pepper from Kerala were added to the cargoes and sold to traders at the ports of Kochi, Kozikode, and Cannore. Regular shipments of spices went to Persia, Arabia, and East Africa. From Arabian and African ports, Arab traders took spices to Alexandria. Trade with regions farther west was under the control of the Venetians and the Genoese.

The Venetian Spice Monopoly

By the tenth century, Venice was beginning to prosper from the Indian Ocean spice trade. Venetian merchants, strategically located midway between the Levant and Western Europe, became the great middlemen of the spice trade. By the dawn of the fifteenth century, Venice was a formidable trading power. The Venetians sold spices to northern and western European buyers at exorbitant prices. Europe had an insatiable appetite for spices. Marco Polo was sent on a voyage to explore the markets throughout Asia, and upon his return, he reported that there was an abundance of pepper, cinnamon, and ginger on the Kerala coast.

Other European nations knew the origin of the spices that reached Alexandria, but they were unable to break the strong hold of Venice. During the latter half of the fifteenth century, many European nations built ships and ventured abroad in search of a new route to the spice-producing countries. The conquest of Constantinople by the Turks in 1453 ad had already marked the decline of Venice. The Portuguese discovery of a new ocean route totally ended the pepper trade monopoly. In the following years, Lisbon became one of the wealthiest towns of Europe.

Trade during the Colonial Era

This was the beginning of a long-term alliance and friendship between Portugal and Kochi. It lasted over a century, until the Dutch overthrew the Portuguese in the late seventeenth century. In 1663, the Dutch gained trade supremacy in Kochi by capturing the Portuguese fort. The spice trade was again the primary motive. Kochi was very prosperous during its trading days with the Dutch, which lasted through January 1791, when a new trade treaty was signed between the British and Kochi. The British ruled until August 15, 1947, when India gained independence through its successful nonviolent disobedience movement.

Chapter Four

The World of Curries

There is nothing more satisfying than sopping up the last drops of curry from the plate with a few grains of rice. The word curry, a corruption of the Tamil word kari, is a generic name used in the West for every Indian dish cooked in a spicy liquid. The western notion that curry derives its color from the sprinkling of a distinctly yellow curry powder is unfortunately a misconception. And as for curry powder, it does not come from one spice plant called curry.

South Indian vegetable curries are dishes that contain a few or many ingredients, thoughtfully seasoned and cooked in a thick or thin sauce and served with plain boiled rice. There is a lot of room to be creative in the world of curries. The spectrum of vegetable curries varies greatly in terms of taste, texture, color and complexity. Our traditional food has a very simple cooking style. The spices used are comparatively limited, but they have the ability to bring out and highlight the taste of the ingredients used, particularly the original taste of the vegetables. Variety comes from innovative methods of preparing vegetables with different herbs and spices. Everyday home curries are robust and full flavored, yet mild enough to be enjoyed by children and adults alike.

South India is blessed with an overwhelming variety of vegetables and fruits. Legumes are plenty; there are over a dozen varieties of green, black, yellow, red, and white beans and peas in all sorts of shapes: small, large, round, and flat. Each legume is used in a particular way for individual curries that require the special characteristics of that one kind of legume above any other.

The spicy curry base, masala, is made with a blend of spices. Added to this masala is an array of herbs along with liquids like water, yogurt, coconut milk, or pureed lentils. The spice blend should be vivid enough to give sparkle to the vegetables, but not so strong that the character of the vegetable is obscured. As they cook in the sauce, the vegetables impart their flavors to one another, resulting in an outstanding dish. There are set rules dictating the use of specific spices for each curry. Our vegetable curries traditionally do not use any stocks or thickeners such as flour or cornstarch.

Oolan: Vegetables in Coconut-Milk Sauce

This simple dish of delicate vegetables cooked in coconut milk and spiced with fresh green chilies and curry leaves is a must at all feasts. Coconut milk has a tendency to separate when cooked at high temperatures, so be careful not to let it get too hot.

1 cup ash gourd or zucchini, cut into half-inch cubes

1 cup shelled black-eyed peas (thawed if frozen), or 1 cup tender black-eyed peas in pods, cut into 1-inch pieces

3 to 4 fresh green chilies (serrano or Thai), slit lengthwise (less for a milder taste)

Salt to taste

3 cups coconut milk*

For seasoning and garnish: 2 tablespoons coconut oil

12 to 15 fresh curry leaves

Place the cut vegetables and green chilies in a saucepan and pour in enough water to cover. Stir in the salt, and cook over medium heat, until the vegetable cubes are fork tender. Pour in coconut milk and bring to a slow boil. Reduce the heat, and simmer for five minutes. Remove from the stove, and garnish with coconut oil and fresh curry leaves. Stir gently and keep covered for ten minutes, to allow flavors to blend. Serve hot with plain boiled rice.

Cheera Udachathu: Fenugreek-Fragrant Mashed Spinach

During summer holidays when I was a child, I always woke up at the crack of dawn to the loud calls of street vendors selling vegetables. Their call was almost like a song. Vendakka, pacha mulagu, thakkali, padavalanga, cheeraiii (Okra, green chilies, tomatoes, snake gourd, spinach, they always lengthened the name of the last vegetable.) It was fun watching our cook bargain with the vendor for another handful of green chilies. Some extra curry leaves were always thrown in as a bonus. Our cook used to turn simple spinach into this delicious side dish for lunch. The fragrance of fenugreek seeds roasting in an iron wok over wooden logs filled the house.

Cheera udachathu is literally mashed spinach. Toasted fenugreek seeds impart a pleasant aroma to this dish.

2 large bunches of fresh spinach leaves or 2 ten-ounce packages of frozen chopped spinach

½ teaspoon turmeric powder

Salt to taste

For seasoning and garnish:

1 teaspoon fenugreek seeds

2 tablespoons vegetable oil

1 teaspoon mustard seeds

1 teaspoon urad dal

2 dried red cayenne, serrano, or Thai chilies, halved

12 to 15 fresh curry leaves

Wash the spinach leaves, and cut them into fine strips. Bring one-quarter cup of water to a boil in a saucepan. Reduce the heat, and add the spinach to the pan. Sprinkle it with salt and turmeric, and cook over medium heat. Spinach leaves contain plenty of water. When cooked, it should be a thick mass. Drain the excess water, and let the spinach cool, then run it through a food processor to make a thick, smooth puree.

In a skillet, toast the fenugreek seeds over medium heat. (Dry roasting enhances the flavor and reduces the bitterness of fenugreek seeds. Fenugreek needs close attention while toasting; it turns reddish brown and tastes very bitter when over-roasted.) Using a mortar and pestle, crush it into a coarse powder.

Heat the oil in a skillet, and add the mustard seeds. When the mustard seeds start sputtering, add the urad dal, the halved red chili pepper, and the curry leaves, and fry until the dal turns golden. Transfer the mashed spinach to the skillet. Sprinkle the toasted fenugreek powder on top, mix well, and cook for another minute or two. Cover and set aside for ten minutes, to allow flavors to blend. Serve hot with plain boiled rice.

Makes 4 to 6 servings if served with another curry, as is traditional.

Mulaku Varutha Puli: Onions and Green Chilies in Spicy Tamarind Sauce

This aromatic, brownish broth crowded with bits of panfried shallots and green chilies is a monsoon season curry traditionally served with rice. Accompanied by deep-fried pappadams or any type of flatbread, it makes a delicious, warming winter soup; a South Indian version of onion soup.

2 tablespoons vegetable oil

2 cups finely chopped shallots or onions 6 fresh green chilies (serrano or Thai), thinly sliced (less for a milder taste)

½ teaspoon turmeric Salt to taste

1 tablespoon tamarind concentrate

For seasoning and garnish:

1 tablespoon oil

1 teaspoon mustard seeds

1 dried red cayenne, serrano, or Thai chili, halved

12 to 15 fresh curry leaves

Heat two tablespoons of oil in a skillet. Add the shallots and green chilies, and fry over medium heat for six to eight minutes, until the shallots are slightly browned. Add turmeric and salt, and stir well. While the shallots are browning, dissolve the tamarind concentrate in three cups of water. Add the tamarind liquid to the fried ingredients, and cook for ten minutes over medium heat. Remove it from the stove, and set it aside.

Heat one tablespoon of oil in a skillet, and add the mustard seeds. When the mustard seeds start sputtering, add the halved chili pepper and the curry leaves. Remove it from the stove, and pour it over the curry. Cover and set aside for ten minutes, to allow the flavors to blend. Serve hot, as soup or with rice.

Makes 4 to 6 servings if served with another curry, as is traditional.

Thakkali Chutney: Fresh Tomato Chutney

It is amazing how a few simple ingredients, when combined in the appropriate manner, can yield such a medley of complex flavors. Chechi, my cousin, prepares this excellent chutney with fresh tomatoes. It makes a great dip.

6 to 8 ripe tomatoes

Salt to taste

½ teaspoon turmeric powder

2 tablespoons vegetable oil

½ teaspoon mustard seeds

3 teaspoons cumin powder

2 teaspoons powdered fenugreek seeds

4 teaspoons cayenne pepper (or less if you prefer a milder taste)

¼ teaspoon asafetida powder (optional)

12 to 15 fresh curry leaves

Score an X at the stem end of each tomato, and drop them in boiling water for thirty seconds. Remove them, and drop them into cool water. It will be easy to peel off the skin. Cut the peeled tomatoes in half, remove the seeds, and slice the tomatoes into thin pieces. In a saucepan, cook the tomatoes and two tablespoons of water along with salt and the turmeric powder. Remove from the stove, mash well, and set aside. This should yield a thick puree.

In a small skillet, heat the oil, and add the mustard seeds. When the mustard seeds start sputtering, add the cumin, fenugreek, cayenne, asafetida, and curry leaves, and fry for a minute. Remove from the stove. (If left on the stove any longer, fenugreek powder will burn and taste bitter.)

Combine the cooked tomatoes with the spices, and mix well. To make the chutney hotter, increase the amount of cayenne. This chutney will keep well in the refrigerator for two weeks.

I also make this chutney with canned tomatoes. Bottled or canned Italian San Marzano tomatoes have the right degree of acidity and blends very well with the spice mixture. In the absence of Italian tomatoes, substitute any readily available canned tomatoes. If you are using canned tomatoes, mix it with about a half-cup of water, salt, and turmeric powder, and cook until the mixture has thickened. Follow the remaining steps of the recipe above.

Makes 2 cups of chutney.